Trait and Types Approaches to Personality

Trait and Types Approaches to Personality Critically evaluate the trait and type approach/perspective of personality, drawing on relevant research. This essay will begin by giving a description of what personality is, before going on to critically evaluate trait and type approaches of personality. The precise definition of personality has been a controversial issue over many years by various theorists. One definition of personality can be described as the underlying causes of individual behaviour and experience within a person (Cloninger, 2000).   Trait and type theory is one of many personality approaches and has been an influential part of personality theory and research. The basic assumption of the trait and type approach is that people possess broad predispositions to respond in particular ways (Pervin, 1993). Therefore, traits are the fundamental building blocks of personality because they produce consistent patterns in our behaviour. Allport and Odbert (1936, cited in Cloninger, 2000), found that the English dictionary lists 18,000 words referring to personality traits. It is difficult to know which of these traits are actually basic and applicable to everyone and which ones are variations of other traits. In order to eliminate unnecessary traits, some researchers have statistically examined which trait scores tend to be correlated. This is done by the use of questionnaires and from this, factor analysis is carried out. Factor analysis is carried out by using a large number of test items administered to many participants , which are then co varied. This enables the identification of groups , clusters or factors of related items. Cattell (1957) proposed 16 dominant personality dimensions. Each of these were defined by a pair of adjectives, such as outgoing versus reserved, tense versus relaxed and suspicious versus trusting. However, later research by other investigators, managed to reduce this number even smaller. Norman (1963, cited in Goldberg, 1990) found five major dimensions of personality, often called the ‘Big Five’. This five-factor model is a descriptive classification of traits into broad domains called neuroticism, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness and openness to experience. His analysis relied largely upon factor analysis. Within these dimensions are lower-level traits such as, talkative versus silent and sociable versus reclusive, which come under the extroversion dimension. This model proposes that human personality can be fully described in terms of five dimensions, however in order to fully understand what an individual’s personality is, the lower-level trait s are needed. Researchers such as Costa McCrae (1992) claim that the five-factor model is the best theory of personality. Nevertheless, a number of investigators have suggested that there may be even fewer underlining dimensions (e.g. Livneh and Livneh, cited in Gleitman, Fridlund Reisberg, 1999). However, the most influential researcher is Eysenck (1967) who found two basic dimensions of personality. He named these introversion-extroversion and neuroticism (stable-unstable). The extrovert is sociable, impulsive and enjoys new experiences, while the introvert tends to be more solitary, cautious and slow to change (Eysenck, 1967). Neuroticism relates to emotional stability, and Eysenck (1967) states that neuroticism/emotional stability and extroversion/introversion are independent dimensions. Introverts and many neurotics have something in common, they are both unsociable and withdrawn, but their lack of sociability has different roots. Introverts are not afraid of social activities, they just don’t like them, however, neurotically shy people keep to themselves through fear of joining in. In the 1970’s, Eysenck added psychoticism onto his existing two dimension classification. People high on this dimension tend to be insensitive, uncaring about others and opposed to accepted social custom (Pervin, 1993). This third dimension is similar to two of the Big Five dimensions, agreeableness and conscientiousness, and Eysenck regards them as being components of the psychoticism dimension. Although Eysenck (1967) does not include openness to experience in his approach, he argues that it is important because it is related to cognitive and educational traits, including intelligence. An alternative five-factor model was also proposed by Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Thornguist Kiers (1991, cited in Zuckerman, Kuhlman, Joireman, Teta Kraft, 1993), and adds impulsive sensation seeking, aggression-hostility and activity to sociability and neuroticism-anxiety to the model. The Big five factor model has been challenged by Waller and Ben-Porath (1987, cited in McCrae and Costa, 1989), claiming that additional research is needed in order to relate the five-factor model to alternative personality systems. However, more research has been carried out by McCrae and Costa (1989), in which they provided evidence that the model can be used to organise the Murray needs measured by Jackson’s (1974) Personality Research Form. Another criticism of the five-factor model comes from McAdams (1992), who claims that although this model may be an important one in the study of personality, it is far from being an integrative model of personality. He also states that because the five factors are so broad, trait scores may not be highly useful in the prediction of specific behaviour in particular situations (McAdams, 1992). However, Digman (1990), states that the five-factor model’s main aim was to be empirical and compatible with other major psychological theories, and this has been achieved. The Big five-factor theory and the three-factor theory seem to agree on two basic points. First, Cattell’s, (1967, cited in Zuckerman et al, 1993) 16-factor personality theory has too many dimensions. Research has also shown that these factors do not seem to be replicable across gender, age, or methods and many investigators have simply failed to find them. The second point is that in the five- and three-factor models, they both agree that two of the major factors are extraversion-introversion and neuroticism. However, there is less agreement on the lower level traits, as proposed by Norman (1963, cited in Gleitman, 1999). In an empirical analysis carried out by Zuckerman et al (1993), they found that there was a great deal of convergence among the major factors in the three-trait models, particularly the two five-factor models. Extroversion and neuroticism are fairly similar in all three models, despite differences in their components. Much research has been carried out in order to support Eysenck’s approach. Two questionnaires were developed to measure extroversion and introversion. One is called the Maudsley personality inventory and the other the Eysenck Personality Inventory, which includes a scale that detects individuals who are faking responses. An example of a question in these questionnaires would be, ‘do you prefer reading to meeting people?’. From the data obtained, they found that individual variations in introversion/extroversion reflect differences in neurophysiological functioning. Introverts are more easily aroused by events and more restrained and inhibited than extroverts. In fact, several studies of identical and fraternal twins suggest that heredity plays a major part in their scores on this dimension (Shields, 1976, cited in Pervin, 1993). It was also found that people high on neuroticism tend to be emotionally susceptible and frequently complain of worry and anxiety, as wel l as bodily aches, such as headaches. It was suggested that individual differences was due to an inherited biological difference in nervous system functioning. Individuals high on neuroticism show a slower decrease in the stress response once the problem has gone and genetic factors contribute significantly to psychoticism (Pervin, 1993). In a study carried out by Barrett, Petrides, Eysenck Eysenck (1998), the factorial similarity of extroversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and social desirability were assessed using gender-specific data collected from 34 countries across the world. They used the Kaiser-Hunka Bianchini (KHB) procedure, however, this procedure was modified due to previous criticism of the validity of this procedure. Eysenck has suggested that it is necessary to collect data for cross-cultural comparisons between countries and cultures using the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), as the main measuring instrument. The main aim was to compare the factorial structure of the EPQ within each country, to that of a UK dataset. This comparison would establish whether there is universality of the psychometric scales of extroversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and social desirability. Eysenck and Eysenck (1985, cited in Barrett et al. 1998), claimed that extroversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and social desirability would prove to be universal across countries and cultures because these scales are based upon a biological theory of personality. Although social desirability has not been specified in this way, Eysenck still claims that there will also be universality. The results found that the factors of extroversion, neuroticism, psychoticism and social desirability were strongly replicable across all of the 34 countries. The trait and type theory approach does seem to be effective in describing and providing evidence for personality. Generally in the study of personality, trait psychologists seek to discover the psychological dimensions along which people differ and the ways in which traits cluster within individuals the major focus being on enduring behaviour (Buss, 1989). The impact of experimental manipulations is not always investigated, because the focus is on the content of behaviour not the psychological process underlying the behaviour. This has been debated by many researchers e.g. Mischel (1968, cited in Hjelle, 1992). An experiment by Fenigstein (1979, cited in Buss, 1989), investigated whether manipulations are crucial determinants of behaviour. He placed each participant (with different degrees of public self-consciousness) in a waiting room with two other â€Å"participants†, who were experimental accomplices. In the control condition these accomplices responded to conversation by the participant, but did not respond in the experimental condition. This manipulation found that participants high in the public self-consciousness trait, reported high levels of discomfort and tended to avoid choosing the accomplices as subsequent partners in the second part of the experiment, compared to those participants low on this trait. This empirical research seems to suggest that traits do have an impact on behaviour, and experimental manipulations significantly influence behaviour (Buss, 1989). Another criticism of the trait theory approach is with the use of factor analysis. The results obtained from this, relies heavily on the exact contents of the date set. Therefore, if the items included in the analysis are changed, the resulting factors may be significantly different. Consequently critics argue that it is difficult to claim that any single factor analysis allows us to identify the real dimensions of personality. In conclusion, it seems that the study of personality is not as clear cut as one would hope. Although there appears to be many similarities among the trait theorists, there are also differences between them. It is also important to point out that there are many other approaches and perspectives of personality – behaviourist, social cognition and dynamic perspectives, which may provide a more complete understanding of personality. No one model seems to be appropriate in accounting for the whole theory of personality, but it seems apparent that each theorist does provide a valuable theory of personality. References Barrett, P.T., Petrides, K. V., Eysenck, S. B. G. Eysenck, H. J. (1998). The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire: An examination of the factorial similarity of P, E, N and L across 34 countries. Personality and Indiviudal Differences, 25, 805-819. Buss, A. H. (1989). Personality as traits. American Psychologist, 44, 1348-1378. Cattell, R. B. (1957). Personality and motivation structure and measurement. New York: Harcourt, Brace, World Cloninger, S. C. (2000). Theories of personality: Understanding persons. (3rd Ed). Upper Saddle River, N.J: Prentice Hall. Costa, P. T. McCrae, R. R. (1992). Four ways five factors are basic. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 653-665. Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual Review of Psychology, 41, 417-440. Eysenck, H. J. (1967). The biological basis of personality. Springfield, IL: Charles C Thomas. Gleitman, H., Fridlund, A. J. F. Reisberg, D. (1999). Psychology. (5th Ed). New York: W.W. Norton. Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The structure of phenotypic personality traits. American Psychologist, 48, 1299-1314. Hjelle, L. A., Ziegler, D. J. (1992). Personality theories: Basic assumptions, research and applications. New York: McGraw-Hill. McAdams, D. P. (1992). The five factor model in personality: A critical appraisal. Journal of Personality, 60, 329-355. McCrae, R. R., Costa, P. T., (1989). More reasons to adopt the five factor model. American Psychologist, 44, 1001-1004. Pervin, L. A. (1993). Personality: Theory and research. (6th Ed). New York: Wiley Zuckerman, M., Kuhlman, D. M., Joireman, J., Teta, P. Kraft, M. (1993). A comparison of three structural models for personality: The big three, the big five, and the alternative five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 757-768.

Continuities and Changes of the Commerce of the Indian Ocean Region from 650 C.E. to 1750 C.E.

Trade has been a major way to connect people to other parts to the world and to access to other products all throughout the world. Today, trade connects nations and products of the western hemisphere to those of the eastern hemisphere. The Indian Ocean was a major trading zone for the areas surrounding it in the time period from 650 C.E. to 1750 C.E. Several aspects of this trading area stayed constant during the aforementioned years, like the products that were traded and that India always remained a major participator in these trades. However, the dominating groups that had the most control over the area changed several times along with the culture of the area.Following the decline of the Mongol Empire, the overland trade route on the Silk Road was becoming an out-dated method of trade. With the advancement of technologies across the world a more expedient method of trade became even more necessary. Nations turned toward maritime trade to feel this need. The Indian Ocean served as a way to connect the Asian continents with the Middle East.Major traders of the area were Europe, Arabia, India, China, and Indonesia. Indian spices, cloth and yarn were transported across the hemisphere using the Indian Ocean. There spices intrigued the population of places like Egypt and China who were unaccustomed to Indian flavors. China spread its precious metals and porcelain across the area. Even animal, like elephants, were traded from Sri Lanka. Europe consumed most from the area than they contributed, which continued into the 19th century. Philosophies and religions were also ‘traded’ through the Indian Ocean route.Islam was introduced to the tribal regions of Africa and spread even farther into Arabia and India. Philosophies also spread from Rome into Arabia and India through the trade. Towards the end of the 2th century people began to be traded in the Columbian Exchange or slave trade. In the time period of 650 C.E. to 1750 C.E., the speed and vitality of t rade in the area was a major continuity.At the time, those who controlled the most of the Indian Ocean had a great deal of economic power. In the 8th century, the Hindus and Buddhists controlled the trade primarily between the eastern coast of Africa and Indonesia. From the 7th to 13th century, Indonesia commercial life flourished. After the Hindu-Buddhist period, Muslim leaders toke control of the area for trade through the Red Sea to Europe and China. Also, the Muslim period involved a lot of trade with India for its pepper from Calicut. Vasco de Gama discovered the Indian Ocean trade route for Portugal by travelling around the southern tip of Africa.Portugal toke advantage of their discoveries and used them to advance in the spice trade with Europe. Several Mediterranean empires tried to challenge the Portuguese control over the Persian Gulf however, by the 16th century they had established bases in the area. Shortly following that, the English and Dutch began placing officials i n India and Africa in order to farther their own endeavors.From the 7th to 18th century many things about the commercial life in the region of the Indian Ocean stayed constant however, many things were altered. After the potential of the Indian Ocean trade system began known, more and more countries began to enter into a power struggle for the control over the area. Precious metals, Indian spices, and exotic animals contributed to the reasons why so many explorers, mariners and traders were so intrigued by the prospects of trading in the Indian Ocean.

A Study of the Conversion Options for the Bataan

Introduction Between 1993 and 1995, M. E. T. T. S. undertook a study of the options for converting the Bataan Nuclear Power Station to fossil fuel (coal or natural gas) combustion. One aim of the study was to find another market for Philippine and Australian coal or natural gas (LNG). The essential question regarding the Bataan Reactor is: how to obtain a financial return from a very expensive power station that * has never produced electricity; * is costing the Philippinec State a sizeable sum in interest; and * has environmental, safety and social concerns over its use as a nuclear power station.The retrofitting of the turbine generator with a fossil fuel fired steam raising system was suggested as a means of utilising part of the plant, and obtaining some return for past and future expenditure. The report/proposal examined some options for fossil fuel firing, and compared those options with nuclear operation. Background The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant was completed in 1984, whilst construction commenced in 1976. It is a Westinghouse light water reactor, that uses pressurised water as it heat exchange medium between the reactor and the steam generators.Its design thermal capacity is 1876MW(t), whilst its rated power output is 621MW(e)1. The technology that is incorporated into the plant is essentially early seventies, but has been modified to incorporate more recent safety devices, such as those recommended by the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission, after evaluation of the Three Mile Island incident. The plant, which was in the process of commissioning at the time of the EDSA revolution, has not been fired, although nuclear fuel was delivered to it storage facilities.Maintenance has continued, with the integrity of the plant and ancillaries being ensured. Conclusion of Study The Philippine Government has previously stated that the Philippines will have nuclear power, but that power will come from new plant and not the Bataan reactor. President Ramos announced on the 8th October 1994 that the Reactor would be converted to a 1000MW combined cycle gas plant. (Although an announcement for a specific conversion scheme has been made, it is still considered that there is time for other options to be considered. )We found that conversion is technically possible, but economically unwise. New and dedicated coal or natural gas fired power plants would give much higher efficiencies, and thus would give the Philippines much better value per peso spent on fuel consumed. The M. E. T. T. S. ‘s study concluded that the only way of obtaining a reasonable return from the Bataan ‘machine' is to use it as a nuclear power plant. Our report specifically came to the following conclusions: * That the use of the present ‘nuclear' turbine/generator in a fossil fired system would be highly wasteful of energy (fuel), A new pulverised coal power station and/or combined cycle natural gas power stations at other site(s), would be a better investment in terms of fuel efficiency and levellised power costs, * The Bataan site is inappropriate for coal fired plant, due to environmental constraints and materials (coal and ash) handling problems, * More assessable sites could be found for combined cycle natural gas fired plants around Manila Bay, and Batangas, * The Bataan reactor has been maintained in a good condition since mothballing, and The reactor is of basically sound design and construction, and could with modest expenditure become one of the most modern and safest light water reactors in East Asia. To fire the plant as a nuclear facility, the sea water intakes to the condensers would need to be cleaned (with some equipment being replaced), some of the reactor monitoring systems would need to be further upgraded, whilst the second power transmission system would need to be reconstructed. Staff would need to be retrained and re-licenced.A description of the study is presented in the attached article by Clarke, Ebeling and Cordero . The article was presenred at The First Philippine International Conference on Energy Efficiency and Demand Side Management, Manila, January 1995. Options for the Conversion of the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant to Fossil Fuel Firing Dr. Michael C. Clarke, Director, M. E. T. T. S. Pty. Ltd. , Sydney, Australia Mr. Douglas R. Ebeling, Associate, M. E. T. T. S. Pty. Ltd. , Sydney, Australia Eng. Donato L. Cordero, Engineering Manager, Bataan Nuclear Power Plant The following Executive Summary of a major report formed the basis of a paper presented at the 1st Philippine Conference on Energy Efficiency and Demand-side Management, Manila, January 1995. ) Capital costs and power generation costs are summarised in Table 1, for one coal conversion option, and the conversion of the plant to natural gas fired, combined cycle operation. For comparison purposes figures are also presented for the refurbishment, commissioning and running the plant as a nuclear power station. Electricity costs from n uclear operation are considerably cheaper than for ither the two conversion options. If power costs was the only criteria for operating the plant then nuclear firing would clearly win. Both coal and natural gas conversions will have environmental consequences for the region. By the installation of best available technology and the application of best available practice, the impact will be minimised. The cost of technology and practice however will increase the cost of electricity produced by the plant. Table 1. SUMMARY TABLE, FOSSIL FUEL CONVERSION OPTIONS, BNPP – Revision, March 1995 CONVERSION TO COALCONVERSION TO N.GASNUCLEAR COMPARISON POWER OUTPUT MW(e)8001700 620 ENERGY OUTPUT GWH5,600 (With FGD – 5400)12,2004,613 CAPITAL COST $USm750 (With FGD – 1070)1385380 (UPGRADE) Electricity Cost ? US/kWH4. 82 (With FGD – 5. 94) 5. 24, 4. 34 (FP $230/170)3. 50 Electricity Cost P/kWH1. 21 (With FGD – 1. 49)1. 31, 1. 09 (FP $230/170)0. 88 CAP. COST/POWER OUT0. 94 (With FGD – 1. 34)0. 810. 61 CONSTRUCTION TIME42 MONTHS4218. 24 FGD Flue Gas Desulphurisation (+ Selective Catalytic Reduction) FP Fuel Price, Natural Gas ($US230 /tonne for LNG, $US170 /tonne piped gas) – (Coal $US 55 / tonne) Notes on Table 1For comparison purposes, the two fossil fuel conversion options and the nuclear comparison have each had the electricity cost based on a pay-back period of twenty years. In each case (for the table) it has been assumed that the full capital cost has been borrowed. When financing packages are being considered, different pay-back periods are likely to be used. The periods are likely to increase with increasing debt. With the natural gas conversion option, an equity contribution would probably be included, since a BOT financing scheme may be used, that ties gas production, reticulation and use into one commercial package.The electricity costs for coal and natural gas conversion are based on a reasonably optimistic scenarios , where no excessive ancillary capital works are charged against the plant. If environmental or other factors require such works, then increase in the electricity cost would occur. It is further considered that the plant required for conversion would be sourced from low cost countries; China, India, Australia, the Philippines etc, as far as possible. The costings for conversion are further premised on the use of the site allocated for construction of PNPP 2, in that it is supplied at no cost, and is geologically stable.If the time required for the construction and commissioning is crucial, then the upgrading of the plant as a nuclear station is clearly the preferred choice. Further, the financial analyses indicate that the nuclear firing of the plant offers the cheapest electricity. Given that the nuclear fuel price is likely to remain stable over the foreseeable future (as against likely rises for coal and natural gas), the nuclear upgrading# and operation offers greater financial certainty to investors. # M. E. T. T. S. ‘s estimate for upgrading the nuclear plant to 1997/8 standards is $US380m.It is backed by further external assessment, and includes new safety features. $US300m is the cost of a basic upgrading based on calculations carried out by the National Power Corporation. SUMMARY – COAL FIRING The conversion of the PNPP I plant to coal firing has some advantages. Coal technology is well proven, and only a small variation in the normal use of that technology is required to convert the plant. The power station will have a capacity similar to the design capacity for the nuclear plant, and will not be the largest plant in the new echelon of Luzon's power facilities.The plant of 800 MW(e) capacity will be relatively inexpensive at a capital cost of $US505m – without Flue Gas Desulphurisation, Selective Catalytic Reduction, or excessive expenditure on coal or ash handling and ignoring the previous expenditure on the nuclear system. A con struction and commissioning period of 42 months is envisaged. The coal option however offers unique co-economic opportunities. The ash waste product would be valuable if used in ancillary industry. By using the Lahar produced by the Pinatubo eruption as an aggregate, with the ash, iron oxide and cement, valuable building materials could be produced.The disadvantages include designing and fitting an environmentally acceptable coal fired power station into the Bataan region. The materials handling alone will create many environmental, management and operational difficulties. The infrastructure requirements for materials handling will also raise engineering and environmental questions that will need to be solved before construction begins. Other environmental questions concerning emission reduction and control must also be answered before work can commence.Another major disadvantage is the requirement for premium fuel, that is expensive in 1994, and in all probability will become relat ively more expensive as the demand for ‘clean' coal increases in the future. SUMMARY – NATURAL GAS FIRING (COMBINED CYCLE, GAS TURBINE) Natural gas provides the cleanest option for the conversion of the Bataan power station to fossil fuel firing. It further offers the most flexible power output to the grid. Options exist for running a part (or whole) of the plant as a single cycle peak load provider, or running the whole plant as a base load facility.The environmental hazard that would be created by such a plant is low compared to coal. Thermal pollution to the sea would be greater than the nuclear option, in that if a 1700MW(e) plant was built with 46% efficiency, the waste heat would be 2000MW(t). This heat would be partially dissipated into the atmosphere (250MW) as against to the sea (1750MW). The additional heat discharge to the sea would be about 500MW(t). NOx emissions can be successfully controlled by modern technology.Steam or water injection, ammonia addition or innovative combustion designs will produce acceptable (but not zero) NOx emissions. At 1700MW(e), the power station would be the largest in the Philippines, and would certainly require a review of the Luzon energy plan. The total consumption of natural gas over a twenty five year period would be 2. 5 TCF; over half the entire Philippine projected resource from Palawan. Over a billion dollars in capital would be needed to build the plant, plus an additional substantial sum to supply the fuel; either as LNG or pipeline gas.The security of a large gas holding area would need to be addressed. Such a holding area and power station would make a relatively easy target when compared to a coal fired plant with coal yards or nuclear facilities. The installation of the gas turbines could be achieved in eighteen months, but the construction of the steam generators and carrying out modifications to the existing plant would take a further twenty four months. From the preliminary financial anal ysis, the construction of a new combined cycle power station makes better financial sense. A NUCLEAR COMPARISONUnder the four headings (Technology, The Environment, Social and Political Concerns, and Economy) that were used to examine the coal-conversion option, a brief summary has been made of the nuclear option for comparison purposes. Technology Light water reactors are a very common type of nuclear reactor. They have good safety records, and most have high capacity factors. There development has been continuous, with technology now being available from Japan, Korea, France, the United Kingdom as well as the United States. They are used in close proximity to the Philippines (Japan, Korea and Taiwan) and have been armarked for use in Indonesia and Malaysia. The Bataan unit is 1970/80's technology. It is however essentially the same as new units, and could be readily upgraded to 1990's standards. The Environment The reactor will produce thermal pollution (waste heat) that will be d isposed of, off Napot Point to the South China Sea. An environmental impact assessment cleared the plant for its designed heat disposal, and found that localised heating of the sea would not be excessive, given the strong currents that would ensure dispersion of the hot water.No other polluting emissions could be expected from the nuclear power plant. (Accidental emissions of radioactive material, are most unlikely. Once the plant was upgraded to 1997 standards, one accident in a million years could be expected. ) Social and Political Concerns The perceived problems at the Bataan power plant are its greatest liability. These problems include seismic instability, claims of faulty workmanship and the lack of experience of the operators. Many geological and seismic inspections have been carried out on the site, with the result being that no significant risk is apparent.To convince Philippine Society of the seismic safety of the plant, an educational programme would need to be carried o ut that emphasised the sites stability, and the high seismic safety factor of the plant (0. 4g). Part of the process of refurbishment and upgrading, would be quality assurance on all systems and components of the plant. Modern QA techniques would need to be used to provide the certainty that all significant parts of the plant meet the highest safety and operational standards. Initially foreign experts would be needed to run the plant. The retraining ofPhilippine staff would take considerable time and money, with the retrained staff spending a number of years assisting in operating similar plants in neighbouring countries. Economics By comparison with the costs of conversion to coal or natural gas, the refurbishment and upgrading of the plant for nuclear operation would be significantly cheaper. A maximum price of $US300m (including staff training) is a fair limit, compared to fossil fuel conversion alternatives. The nuclear option should have the shortest lag time in terms of upgrad ing and commissioning.If foreign staff were used to initially man the plant then a period of eighteen to twenty months would be needed for full operation. This relatively short period, may be valuable in that the some of the expensive, old or temporary oil fired power plant could be retired early. Fuel costs, plus operation and management costs for LWRs should cost no more than ? US 2/kWH (0. 54 Centavos/kWH). If the interest on the $US 300m was 12%, with a pay-back period of twenty years for the capital, then a further 0. 9? US/kWH would be added to the power cost.The total power cost would be 2. 9? US/kWH (0. 78 Centavos/kWH). If consideration was given to running the Bataan power station as a nuclear plant, then the environmental and economic benefits (as well as safety) should be emphasised, to overcome social and political opposition. THE PHILIPPINES AND THE NUCLEAR CYCLE The Philippines would be an importer of nuclear fuel and an exporter of spent fuel. The fuel that the react or would use would be lightly enriched. As the uranium 235 is consumed, some plutonium is formed, part of which is also used up as fuel.The spent fuel rods contain a depleted amount of uranium 235, a little plutonium but mostly non-fissile uranium 238. These fuel rods can be reused in heavy water type reactors (CANDU) that are running in Japan, Korea and Taiwan, as primary fuel. All the wastes would be processed by those countries, whilst the Philippines would receive a financial return for its used nuclear fuel. This is a win-win situation. The sale of the used fuel rods could bring the net production cost of electricity (fuel plus operations and management) to under ? US 1. 5/kWH. PLANT SECURITY AND THE NUCLEAR OPTIONUnfortunately there is an ongoing insurgency situation in the Philippines. The insurgency problems are no longer major, and in all probability will recede. All major plant however does need a security system. The Bataan plant was constructed with good external, perime ter and internal security systems. There are commonly perceived notions that Nuclear Plants are susceptible to terrorist attack. These notions are based on a lack of understanding of the compact nature of nuclear plants, and the presence of very considerable containment structures for the reactor and fuel stores – especially American designed LWRs.The plant is easy to guard, and would be able to resist attack with light weapons, including rocket propelled grenades etc. The damage from such an attack would be limited to the knocking out of ancillary plant and structures, including the transformer yard, the auxiliary fuel tanks and administration building. Notes 1. The above power cost figures are based on 1997 projected fuel prices, 12% interest, 85% availability, and 20 years amortisation.. The price of coal and natural gas are considered to be more liable for major increases, than nuclear fuel.The Asian demand for both coal and gas is expected to outstrip supply in the comin g decade. 2. The estimated construction time includes planning and design, equipment construction, site modification, plant erection and commissioning, and staff training (coal and natural gas conversion). If major ancillary works are required (eg. major wharves, ash and coal pipelines, shipping channels etc), then both an increase in the construction time and costs could be expected.

Project Management Plan Critique Essay - 2691 Words

Project Management Plan Critique 1. Executive Summary A project management is a directional approach of planning and guiding project process to its ultimate goal from start to finish. In this project, the main task is to develop a Web-Based system through with customers can rent video games. This online application should be able to perform all the operations online as well as provide solution for any problems. All the management and planning has been done as well as all the phases required for project management plan has been carried out which includes: a. Phase 1: Initiation b. Phase 2: Planning or design c. Phase 3: Production or execution d. Phase 4: Monitoring and controlling e. Phase 5:†¦show more content†¦Description The description mentioned in the PMP is very detailed and it gives a very good outlook of what the project will look like when completed and how much it will cost and the time frame. 9. Project manager and Team Members The name, email address, cost and position of all the team members and project manager is clearly mentioned. However, it forgets to mention the phone number, qualification, actual address, and back-up contact person. 10. Stake Holders All the stake holders with their details and complete responsibilities is acknowledged with their respective managing relationships. Their area of interest and level of interest in also well coated. 11. Deliverables There are no immediate and test deliverables. A final product will be released at the end of the project cycle but it will be tested and adjusted when required during each phase. 12. Definitions Definitions are clearly mentioned and creates no confusion. So it is correct. 4. PMP Critique 13. Introduction Project management critique requires a detailed and careful insight of the project. It requires a high level overview of the project and what is included in the project Management Plan, and most importantly the approach is adequate for project completion. Excessive details is not necessary but a critical comprehension is a must. 14. Organization In project, team chart, responsibilities and work frame is clearly mentionedShow MoreRelatedEvaluation Of Six Sigma Improvement Process Essay1519 Words   |  7 Pagesmajor issue. Suggestions/Critique: - †¢ The Define phase failed to give details on the magnitude or the impact of the problem statement. It should focus on the Critical-to-Quality [CTQ] expectations. †¢ They failed to identify the Target Customers there are no Benchmarks used to compare their target goals measures. 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